Study On Finance Intermediation And Intermediaries Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1473 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? A major part of any financial institutions activity was to make loans to ultimate borrowers out of funds which were made available to them from the ultimate lenders. In fact this is what financial intermediation means ,the process of indirect finance using financial intermediaries. In other words, intermediaries create assets for lenders and liabilities for borrowers which are more attractive to each than would be the case if the parties had to deal with each other directly. Such institutions with an intermediation role are banks, investment companies, credit unions and insurance companies. By collecting surplus funds from lenders (also called savers) and allocate them to those with a deficit of funds (borrowers), financial intermediaries increase the efficiency of the economy by promoting a better allocation of resources. Another role of financial intermediaries is to bridge the gap between borrowers and lenders and reconcile their often incompatible needs and objectives by performing a transformation function: Financial intermediaries collect small-size deposits made by savers and repackage them into larger size loans. They perform this size-transformation function by exploiting economies of scale because they have access to a larger number of depositors than any other individual borrower does. Financial intermediaries are said to be borrowing short and lending long which means that they transform short-term funds into loans which are made available to borrowers for longer terms. In this maturity transformation process they are said to be mismatching their assets and liabilities. Financial intermediaries are able to minimise the risk of borrowers that are not being able to repay the amount of money they owe to the savers by diversifying their investments, pooling risks, screening and monitoring borrowers and holding capital and reserves as a buffer for unexpected losses. This function is known as risk transformation. Anot her crucial function is to transform primary securities into secondary securities that are more attractive to lenders. In this way, secondary securities will be less risky and more liquid than primary securities because banks benefit from economies of scale. This allows them to offer lower loan rates relative to direct financing. Arguably, savers and borrowers do not need financial intermediaries; borrowers can obtain funds directly from the lenders through direct finance in financial markets. However, there are two types of barriers that can be identified in direct finance: it is more difficult and expensive to match the needs of borrowers and lenders and, in most of the cases, these needs are incompatible Financial Markets Direct financing Savers/ Depositors Borrowers Indirect financing Financial Intermediaries The benefits of indirect financing through financial intermediaries can be summarised as followed: 1. Through indirect finance it is generally achieved greater liquidity and there is a greater likelihood that loans will be available when required. 2. Financial intermediaries are able to reduce risk through a number of devices. Firstly, they can be confident that while some depositors will withdraw their deposits, others will be making new ones. This is known as The law of large numbers and it is one of the benefits of the financial intermediaries. Secondly, not all assets behave in the same way at the same time, therefore, holding enough different assets (there is less than perfect correlation between movements in asset returns) . 3. Financial intermediaries reduce the transaction costs because of their ability to pool funds and trade in large blocks of securities where the dealing commission is very small in proportion to the value. Also, financial intermediaries recruit high quality staff to perform the process of finding suitable deficit agents. b) To begin with, an asset is broadly defined as a ny possession that has value in an exchange. Assets can be classified into two main categories: real assets and financial assets. Real assets are goods that provide a flow or services over a period of time(examples are buildings, machinery, land). In contrast to real assets are financial assets, such as stocks, bonds or bank deposits. They are classified as intangible assets because they do not contribute directly to the production process; they are claims to the income generated by real assets. For financial assets the typical future benefit is a claim to future cash. Their performance depends on the performance of the underlying real assets. While real assets contribute to the net income in an economy, the role of financial assets is to allocate income or wealth among various investors. Financial assets can be classified into three broad types of securities: equity, debt or derivative securities. When an investor buys ownership shares(equity) in a company he actually invest s money in it. The firm uses the money so raised to buy real assets which will in turn generate income which will be distributed to the owner of the shares in the form of dividends, proportional to the investment. Debt securities, on the other hand, promise the investor a fixed stream of income regardless of the financial condition of the issuer. Finally, derivative securities, such as options and futures contracts, derive their value from the prices of other assets(bonds or stocks). They are very useful to businesses because they are among the cheapest and most readily available means at companies disposal to buffer themselves against shocks in currency values, commodity prices and interest rates . c) The three concepts that will be approached in this section- risk, return and diversification- are closely linked. They represent the key issues of an investor when choosing how to allocate his surplus funds, or in other words what assets to hold. The answer will be that he wi ll choose the assets that give him the rate of return required, given the risk that they involve. Assuming that investors are risk averse income maximisers they will look for assets that involve minimum risk for a given level of return. A key measure of success is the rate of return on an asset, or to put in another way, the rate at which an investors funds have grown over a given period of time. The total holding period return(HPR) of a share of stocks will consist of any income(dividend) that the asset earns plus any capital gain(or loss). The reward from an investment is its expected return(also known as mean value) which is actually the average HPR an investor would earn if repeating its investment in the asset. Any investment involves some degree of uncertainty about future holding period returns and this is where risk derives from. Some of the sources of risk come from macroeconomic fluctuations, changing fortunes of various industries, asset-specific unexpected develop ment. Risk can be defined as the probability that the actual return on an asset may differ from the expected return. By looking at this definition it is only reasonable to suggest that risk can be measured by examining the degree of variation in the return over a period of time. Therefore, it is sensible to say that an asset with a wide dispersion of actual returns around the mean is riskier than one which returns have been tightly clustered around the mean. In technical terms, the asset with a lower variance is less risky than the one with a high variance. However, some investors are willing to invest their money in risky assets if there is a high reward that will compensate for the risk involved. This reward is called the risk premium and it is the difference between the expected HPR on the stock and the risk- free rate(for example the rate of Treasury bills). On the other hand, there are some investors who are risk averse and they are less willing to hold a risky asset. It is obvious to say that people are risk averse if the risk premium on an asset is zero. Risk averse investors require a higher risk premium in order to invest their funds in the risky assets; the risk premium will be greater the greater their risk aversion. One way of reducing the degree of risk to which investors are exposed is diversification, one of the many benefits offered by intermediaries. Diversification implies that as more securities are added to the portofolio, so the portofolios variance diminishes. However, there is no way to avoid all risk even if a large number of risky securities are bought. This is because ultimately all securities are affected by common macroeconomic factors. The risk that remains even after diversification is the market risk, while the one that can be eliminated by diversification is the firm-specific risk. A risk averse investor will do everything possible to diversify away the firm-specific risk since the market-risk will always remain. Moreover, diversification is of no benefit when the correlation coefficient is +1(there is a positive linear association between stocks). As a result, provided that the returns on assets are less than perfectly correlated, the more diversified is a portofolio the lower will be the risk associated with a given return. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Study On Finance Intermediation And Intermediaries Finance Essay" essay for you Create order

Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm ) Is A Metabolic Disorder Caused By...

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder caused by pancreatic dysfunction resulting in absence or insufficient insulin secretion. Different categories of DM are as follows; type 1 DM, type 2 DM, other specific type and gestational DM (GDM) (Huether McCance 2012). Type 1 DM is caused by autoimmune where there is no insulin production, type 2 DM happens later in life due to insulin resistance from obesity, low level of HDL(good cholesterol), or polycystic ovary disease (Blair, 2016). Other specific types could be idiopathic, and lastly GDM which is seen only during pregnancy due to increased pregnancy hormone. Diabetes Insipidus (DI) is caused by vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone (ADH) deficiency resulting in disorder of water metabolism. Hypotonic polyuria, increased thirst and excessive fluid intake is common with DI. In addition, DI has four classification; namely neurogenic, nephrogenic, gestagenic, and dipsogenic types (Walsh March, 2016). Pathophysiology of Diabetes Melli tus Type 1 DM is caused by autoimmune disorder where the T cell mediated disease damage the pancreatic beta cell (Huether McCance, 2012). At the onset of the disease process, lymphocytic infiltrates of macrophage activating CD4+ cells with cytokine secreting, cytotoxic CD8+cells surround the necrotic B cells (McPhee Hammer, 2010) (p.507). This is a gradual process that happens over several years. However, the production of glucagon increases due to the damage to the beta cells of isletShow MoreRelatedA Brief Note On Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm )898 Words   |  4 Pages Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder resulting in hyperglycemia (high blood glucose level), and its characteristic signs and symptoms are polydipsia, polyphagia, and polyuria. In most cases, the contributory factors include pancreatic disorder or destruction of the beta cells of the Langerhans affecting insulin production. However, globally 592 million people are expected to be diagnosed with DM by 2035 which is about 53% increase (Bone, 2015). Actually, the four different types of DMRead MoreDiabetes Mellitus As A Chronic Metabolic Disorder Essay1622 Words   |  7 Pages Chapter - 23 Diabetes Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder that prevents the body to utilise glucose completely or partially. It is characterised by raised glucose concentration in the blood and alterations in carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. This can be due to failure in the formation of insulin or liberation or action. Since insulin is produced by the p cells of the islets of Langerhans, any receding in the number of functioning cells will decrease the amountRead MoreDiagnosis Of Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm )843 Words   |  4 PagesDiabetes or clinically referred to as Diabetes Mellitus (DM), is part of several groups of metabolic illnesses where there are high glucose levels for an extended period of time. Diabetes happens if there is not enough insulin produced by the pancreas or the body cells are not adequately responding to the insulin produced. (Ciccone, 2016 p510-511). Delving into its early history, diabetes was one of the early illnesses described, from a tablet found in Egypt from the year 1500 BC that statedRead MoreEssay on Diabetes Mellitus1282 Words   |  6 PagesDiabetes mellitus is a collection of common metabolic disorders. The scenario of passing large amount of urine is described by the Greek and Roman physicians as diabetes whereas the term mellitus refers to sweet taste (Barrett, Barman, Boitano, Brooks, 2012). The name of the disease reveals one of the important clinical manifestation, that is, passing sweet-tasted urine, and in the other word, the presence of sugar in the urine. Besides that, Funk (2010) stated that there are three most commonRead MoreDiabetes : The Common Chronic Disorders1737 Words   |  7 PagesINTRODUCTION: Diabetes is one of the most common chronic disorders in UK [1]. According to Silverman, more than 2.6 million people in UK are diabetic as according to data collected from GP practices and more than 5 million obese people are registered to GP practices. So One in ten people are getting treatment for obesity and one in 20 are getting treatment for diabetes [2]. It is estimated that more than 5% men and more than 4% women in England are found to have diagnosed diabetes. While, 3% menRead MoreThe Role Of Trpm2 Channels On Diabetes2798 Words   |  12 PagesFeng) Term Paper (Due on November 15, 2014) Topic : The role of TRPM2 channels in diabetes TRPM2, its Biophysical Properties as Potential Therapeutic Drugs for Diabetes Mellitus Yunjong Han, 997267443 Introduction Diabetes mellitus (DM) is considered as a metabolic disorder and is the condition, abnormality in blood glucose level (usually high glucose in blood) due to problems in insulin secretion from the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells or insulin insensitivity of the insulin receptors on insulin sensitive tissuesRead MoreDiabetes Mellitus : A Major Public Health Problem Worldwide Essay1480 Words   |  6 PagesDiabetes Mellitus has increased in recent years due to bad eating habits and inactivity. Diabetes Mellitus is a major public health problem worldwide. Improved testing accuracy has improved which has confirmed more cases. There are two types of diabetes. In this paper I will explain the differences in both types of Diabetes and complications that are commonly associated with this disease, as well as treatment and plan of care for this disease. (American Medical Association) Type I DiabetesRead MoreA New Day It s A Blessing2392 Words   |  10 Pagesa life and healthy. According to that rapid revolutionize success in science and medical research in metabolic disorders. It’s consider one of the top of diseases on the list of the most world health organizations agencies around the globe that attempting to make a significant effort in fighting the disease and limits it risks that a combined with the disease. Diabetes Militias it is that metabolic illness witch required serious and real attention and medical care from the diabetic patients and theirRead MoreType 1 Diabetes Mellitus ( T1dm )1456 Words   |  6 PagesINTRODUCTION Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is the most common metabolic disorder in which both genetic and environmental factors are involved [1]. T1DM is considered a chronic immune-mediated disorder. It was hypothesized that whilst children have a genetic predisposition to T1DM, there is likely to be an environmental factor that triggers the development of T1DM. Possible triggers that have been suggested include viral infection, vaccines, low levels of vitamin D and cow’s milk, [2]. OxidativeRead MoreDiabetes Of Diabetes Mellitus ( Dm )1175 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by high blood sugar levels over an extended period of time. With symptoms including increased urination, thirst, and hunger, diabetes is mainly due to loss of insulin production in the pancreas or lack of response to insulin produced. As of 2015, nearly 415 million people worldwide have diabetes with the three main types being Type 1, Type 2, and gestational. 90% of all diabetes cases are Type 2 (T2D) which is

Traditional Healing System Free Essays

string(299) " make up a large part of this great counterpoint focused on harmony: The stricken patient is given a vocabulary in terms of which to grasp the nature of his or her distress and relate it to the wider world \(Geertz, 1973\), providing an explanation, and converting energy into a form that can heal\." A PROPOSED APPLICATION OF ETHNOMEDICAL MODELS TO TRADITIONAL HEALING SYSTEMS Stanley Kipper Ethnomedicine has become a topic of intensive study in recent years due, in part, to the work of the World Health Organization and other groups attempting to facilitate cooperation between indigenous practitioners and those trained in Western allopathic biomedicine. This chapter describes two ethnomedical systems (the North American Navajo tradition and the South American Peruvian Pachakuti curanderismo) in terms of two different models, one designed by Siegler and Osmond (1974), and one designed by a task force of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Each of these indigenous systems are found to be comprehensive, covering each facet of the models, and pointing the way for possible collaboration between allopathic biomedicine and various indigenous systems of healing, a project that has accelerated due to public demand (Iljas, 2006, p. We will write a custom essay sample on Traditional Healing System or any similar topic only for you Order Now 90). The term â€Å"ethnomedicine† refers to the comparative study of indigenous (or traditional) medical systems. Typical ethnomedical topics include causes of sickness, medical practitioners and their roles, and specific treatments utilized. The explosion of ethnomedical literature has been stimulated by an increased awareness of the consequences of the forced displacement and/or acculturation of indigenous peoples, the recognition of indigenous health concepts as a means of maintaining ethnic identities, and the search for new medical treatments and technologies. In addition, Kleinman (1995) finds ethnographic studies an â€Å"appropriate means of representing pluralism†¦ and of drawing upon those aspects of health and suffering to resist the positivism, the reductionism, and the naturalism that biomedicine and, regrettably, the wider society privilege†(p. 195). In his exhaustive study of cross-cultural practices, Torrey (1986) concluded that effective treatment inevitably contains one or more of four fundamental principles: 1. A shared world view that makes the diagnosis or naming process possible; 2. Certain personal qualities of the practitioner that appear to facilitate the patient’s recovery; 3. Positive patient expectations that assist recovery; 4. A sense of mastery that empowers the patient. If a traditional medical system yields treatment outcomes that its society deems effective, it is worthy of consideration by allopathic biomedical investigators, especially those who are aware of the fact that less than 20 percent of the world’s population are serviced by allopathic biomedicine (Mahler, 1977; Freeman, 2004; O’Connor, 1995). However, what is considered to be â€Å"effective† varies from society to society (Krippner, 2002). Allopathic biomedicine places its emphasis upon â€Å"curing† (removing the symptoms of an ailment and restoring a patient to health), while traditional medicine focuses upon â€Å"healing† (attaining wholeness of body, mind, emotions, and/or spirit). Some patients might be incapable of being â€Å"cured† because their sickness is terminal. Yet those same patients could be â€Å"healed† mentally, emotionally, and/or spiritually as a result of the practitioner’s encouragement to review their life, to find meaning in it, and to become reconciled to death. Those who have been â€Å"cured,† on the other hand, may be taught procedures that will prevent a relapse or recurrence of their symptoms. An emphasis upon prevention is a standard aspect of traditional medicine, and is becoming an important part of biomedicine as well (Freeman, 2004; Krippner Welch, 1992). A differentiation can also be made between â€Å"disease† and â€Å"illness. † From either the biomedical or the ethnomedical point of view, one can conceptualize â€Å"disease† as a mechanical difficulty of the body resulting from injury or infection, or from an organism’s imbalance with its environment. Illness,† however, is a broader term implying dysfunctional behavior, mood disorders, or inappropriate thoughts and feelings. These behaviors, moods, thoughts, and feelings can accompany an injury, infection, or imbalance—or can exist without them. Thus, one may refer to a â€Å"diseased brain† rather than an â€Å"ill brai n,† but use the phrase of â€Å"mental illness† rather than of â€Å"mental disease. † Cassell (1979) goes so far as to claim that allopathic biomedicine treats disease but not illness; â€Å"physicians are trained to practice a technological medicine in which disease is their sole concern and in which technology is their only weapon† (p. 8). Healing models The Siegler-Osmond Model Comparisons between biomedicine and ethnomedicine can be made utilizing hypothetical structures such as the 12-faceted model proposed by Siegler and Osmond (1974). In the social and behavioral sciences, a â€Å"model† is an explicit or implicit explanatory structure that underlies a set of organized group behaviors. Their use in science attempts to improve understanding of the process they represent. Models have been constructed to describe human conflict, competition, and cooperation. Models have been proposed to explain mental illness, personality dynamics, and family interactions. I have modified the Siegler-Osmond model, making it applicable to both â€Å"physical† and â€Å"mental† disorders, although traditional practitioners usually do not differentiate between the two. The utility of the Siegler-Osmond model can be demonstrated by comparing a shamanic medical model, an eclectic folk healing model, and the allopathic biomedical model on 12 dimensions: 1. Diagnosis 2. Etiology 3. Patient’s behaviour 4. Treatment 5. Prognosis . Death and suicide 7. Function of the institution 8. Personnel 9. Rights and duties of the patient 10. Rights and duties of the family 11. Rights and duties of the society 12. Goal of the model. The Navaho Indian healing model The Navaho healing system serves as an example of the application of the Siegler and Osmond model. The term â€Å"Navaho† (or â€Å"Navajo†) is used by anthropologists to refer to the largest Native American tribe in the United States; the Navaho reservation in the south west part of the country comprises 16 million acres. The word â€Å"Navaho† is derived from the Spanish term for â€Å"people with big fields,† but in their own language, they call themselves the Dineh people. They are members of the southern Athapaskan linguistic group and occupy plateau areas of north eastern Arizona, overlapping into New Mexico and Utah. Geertz (1973) points out that the entire lifestyle of a culture is built upon its mythic view of â€Å"reality. † The Navaho ethic values â€Å"calm deliberativeness, untiring persistence, and dignified caution† and the Navahos view nature as â€Å"tremendously powerful, mechanically regular, and highly dangerous† (p. 30). While the dominant U. S. culture attempts to â€Å"tame nature,† the Navaho worldview seeks to live in respectful harmony with it. Theories of sickness and methods of healing make up a large part of this great counterpoint focused on harmony: The stricken patient is given a vocabulary in terms of which to grasp the nature of his or her distress and relate it to the wider world (Geertz, 1973), providing an explanation, and converting energy into a form that can heal. You read "Traditional Healing System" in category "Essay examples" Sandner (1979) has identified the most important values in Navaho mythology as the acquisition of supernatural power (notably for the maintenance of health), the preservation of harmony in family relationships, and the achievement of adult status. However, this status operates in tandem with cooperation with and respect for other family, clan, and community members. The diagnosis is made by the Navaho diagnostician in consultation with the patient and the patient’s family, all of whom work together in determining the cause of sickness. The role of the medicine man in diagnosis is usually limited, as he later carries out instructions given by the diviner (Sandner, 1979). Navahos have constructed three major diagnostic categories of mental illness. â€Å"Moth craziness† is characterized by fits of uncontrolled behavior (e. g. , jumping into the fire like a moth), rage, violence, and convulsions; it is attributed to incestual activities. â€Å"Crazy violence† has some of the same external manifestations as â€Å"moth craziness† but is due to alcoholism. â€Å"Ghost sickness,† ascribed to sorcery, manifests in nightmares, loss of appetite, dizziness, confusion, panic, and extreme anxiety. When someone knowingly or accidentally breaches taboos or offends dangerous powers, the natural order of the universe is ruptured and â€Å"contamination† or â€Å"infection† occurs that must be redressed. Etiology is seen as the intrusion of a harmful agent that destroys the natural harmony between individuals and their surroundings, especially in circumstances of exposure to lightning, whirlwinds, or such animals as bear, deer, coyotes, porcupines, snakes, and eagles that are inappropriately trapped, killed, or eaten. Sometimes these harmful agents appear in frightening, ominous dreams. Contact with spirits of the dead is especially hazardous, as is sorcery. The diviner, the medicine man, the patient, and the patient’s family work together in determining the cause of sickness (Sander, 1979). The patient’s behavior determines what type of â€Å"Chant Way† will be utilized in his or her treatment. A person who is unable to resolve grief, who harbors fears of accidents, and who speaks of chest pains usually will be told to have an â€Å"Evil Way† ceremony. The patient’s dreams are important as a diagnostic aid; the most ominous dreams are those of being burned, falling off a cliff, and drowning; dreams of dead relatives are especially portentous. During treatment, the Navaho hataalii (or â€Å"singing† shaman) utilizes a number of therapeutic procedures, most notably one or more of the 10 basic â€Å"Chant Ways† and their accompanying sand paintings. These are complex rituals that center on cultural myths in which heroes or heroines once journeyed to spiritual realms to acquire special knowledge. The symptoms for which a given chant is prescribed are based on connections with the specific chant myth. For example, the â€Å"Hail Way† is prescribed for muscular tiredness and soreness because the hero, Rain Boy, suffered from these symptoms when he was attacked by his enemies; the â€Å"Big Star Way† protects the patient against the powerful influences of the stars and the dangers of the night. The â€Å"Night Way† is said to be useful for blindness, deafness, and mental illness because the â€Å"Night Way† hero confronted each of these dangers. The â€Å"Beauty Way† is used for rheumatism, sore throats, digestive and urinary problems, and skin diseases—difficulties faced by the chant hero. Ritual chanting takes a multi-modal approach that contributes to its effectiveness. The repetitive nature and mythic content is easily deciphered and often repeated at appropriate times by those patients well-versed in tribal mythology. According to Sandner (1979): â€Å"The visual images of the sand paintings and the body painting, the audible recitation of prayers and songs, the touch of the prayer sticks and the hands of the medicine man, the taste of the ceremonial musk and herbal medicines, and the smell of the chant incense—all combine to convey the power of the chant to the patient† (p. 15). The hataalii, among the Navahos a male practitioner, usually displays a highly developed dramatic sense in carrying out the chant but generally avoids the clever sleight of hand effects used by many other cultural healing practitioners to demonstrate their abilities to the community. The chant is considered by Sandner to facilitate suggestibility. It shifts attention through repetitive singing and the use of culture-specific mythic themes. These activities prepare participants for a lengthy healing ceremony that may involve mythic images and narratives enacted in purification rites or executed in â€Å"sand paintings† composed of sand, seeds, charcoal, and flowers. Some paintings, such as those used in a â€Å"Blessing Way,† are crafted from such ingredients as corn meal, flower petals, and charcoal. From a psychological perspective, the patients â€Å"translate† these â€Å"symbols† and â€Å"metaphors† as they sit on the painting, but from their own perspective, they are interacting with some of the basic forces and energies of nature. Six steps comprise the typical â€Å"Chant Way† ritual: preparation (in which the patient is â€Å"purified†), presentation of the patient to the healing spirits, evocation of these spirits to the place of the ceremony, identification of the patients with a positive mythic theme, transformation of the patients into a condition where ordinary and mythic time and space merge, and release from the mythic world and return to the everyday world where past transgressions are confessed, where new learnings are assimilated, and where life changes are brought to fruition. The hataalii’s performance empowers the patient by creating an alternative domain of consciousness—a â€Å"mythic reality†Ã¢â‚¬â€through the use of chants, dances, and songs (often accompanied by drums and rattles), masked dancers, purifications (e. g. , sweat baths, emetics, fumigants, lotions, herbal medicines, ritual bathing, sexual abstinence), and sand paintings. Within the context of this â€Å"mythic reality,† especially as made visible in the designs constructed in sand by the hataalii, the patient is taken into â€Å"sacred time† and is able to bring a total attentiveness to the healing ritual. The patient follows a specific regimen for the next four days to protect members of the community from his or her newly acquired powers. The role of the community is important in another way; the chants are attended by large numbers of people, many of whom might be asked to participate. This type of participation appears to increase the patients’ sense of personal power, magnify their imagination as they attend to the chants, providing social reinforcement and increased motivation. The mentation of the practitioner, the patient, and the community may all be affected by the ceremony. The hataalii is dusted with the decorated sand, and his patients claim to feel the power emanating from the painting. This procedure resembles the enhancement of imagination common to several hypnotic procedures, and is probably further augmented by the repetitive chanting. In addition to the â€Å"Chant Way,† there are other rituals used by the hataalii, one of which is a prayer session. For example, sacred corn pollen may be sacrificed during a time of prayer in an attempt to please the spirits needed to heal the patient: This ritual must be performed perfectly and behind locked doors, often at the patient’s home. The setting for treatment usually is the Hogan, a specially constructed octagon with log walls, sealed with mud adobe. The door opens to the East, and a hole in the center of the domed ceiling lets the smoke out. Men sit on the North, women and children on the South; the sand painting occupies most of the floor, and the patient sits in the center with family and friends nearby. The door to the darkened Hogan is fastened to prevent the prayer from escaping. Sharpened flints are used to expel the evil from both the patient and the Hogan. These procedures reduce the patient’s symptoms at the same time as they stabilize the social and emotional condition of the community. For example, the hataalii instructs the family to make elaborate preparations for their forthcoming â€Å"house call. † Upon arriving, the patients are told that the prognosis is excellent, thus fostering positive expectations (Torrey, 1986). The most important people in the patient’s life often join in the prayers, reaffirming the belief that the patient will recover. Prognosis, to a large degree, depends upon the attitude of the patient. A Navaho practitioner told Sandner (1979): â€Å"If the patient really has confidence in me, then he gets cured†¦. If a person gets bitten by a snake, for example, certain prayers and songs can be used, but if the patient doesn’t have enough confidence, then the cure won’t work† (pp. 17 – 18). Premature death and suicide are attributed to sorcery, the return of the dead, or to the presence of outsiders. Kluckhohn (Kluckhohn Leighton, 1962) noted that funeral rituals are designed to prevent or discourage dead persons from returning to threaten their relatives. The fear of spirit possession is connected with the fear of ghosts, spirits, and the dead. High suicide rates are associated with Navaho communities marked by loss of tribal identity. When a sick person’s family has determined that a practitioner is necessary, a hataalii is called in, frequently accompanied by an herbalist and/or a diagnostician (both of whom are of lower status). There are some 200 plants in the Navaho pharmacopoeia and the herbalists gather these plants and make medicines, some of which are used directly, and some of which are used ceremonially by the hataalii. The diagnosticians, or â€Å"diviners,† are usually women who â€Å"listen† to the spirits and typically provide a statement of the problem. This procedure may be accompanied by such diagnostic procedures as hand trembling, star gazing, candle gazing, and crystal gazing—all of which involve the inward focusing of the practitioner’s attention, with the purpose of facilitating insight as to the nature of the problem. Every hataalii must go through a long and arduous period of training and apprenticeship; they must earn the approval of their teachers and their community by demonstrating that they can perform successfully (Sandner, 1979). The â€Å"singing shaman’s† memory must be impeccable; the effort required to learn one major chant has been compared to that of obtaining a university degree (Sandner, 1979). A patient with a break or fracture is usually sent to an allopathic practitioner, although Sandner observed a Navaho specialist set broken bones â€Å"in a true scientific manner† (p. 8). In the Navaho system, the patients’ first priority is that of treatment, and they assume the role of cooperating with the practitioner by taking an active part in their diagnosis and treatment. The major priority of the patient’s family is to seek diagnosis and treatment for its indisposed family members, seeking qualified personnel. It is the family’s role to deter mine payment, an important responsibility because some Chant Ways last for several days and the fee may exceed several months’ salary. The major priority of the patient’s community is to support the sick patient. This is done by attending the Chant Way and facilitating his or her treatment. The community plays the role of preserving traditions and training new practitioners. This latter task is difficult, given the high cost of apprenticeships, especially for the hataalii. The goal of this healing model is integration within the framework of cosmic harmony, and the rejection of the effects of sorcery which are seen as alien to this harmony (Sandner, 1979). According to Kluckhohn (1962), the Navahos are â€Å"generations ahead† of U. S. physicians in treating the whole person. The goal of Navaho healing is to restore the patient’s harmony with his or her family, clan and universe. The U. S. office of alternative medicine model In April 1995, the Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM) of the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) held a conference on research methodology (O’Connor, Calabrese, Cardena, Eisenberg, Fincher, Hufford, Jonas, Kaptchuck, Martin, Scott, Zhang, 1997). The charge of this conference was to evaluate research needs in the field of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), and several working groups were created to produce consensus statements on a variety of essential topics. The panel on definition and description accepted a dual charge: to establish a definition of the field of complementary and alternative medicine for purposes of identification and research; to identify factors critical to a thorough and unbiased description of CAM systems, one that would be applicable to both quantitative and qualitative research. The panel defined CAM as follows: Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is a broad domain of healing resources that encompasses all health systems, modalities, and practices and their accompanying theories and beliefs, other than those intrinsic to the politically dominant health system of a particular society or culture in a given historical period. CAM includes all such practices and ideas self-defined by their users as preventing or treating illness or promoting health and well being. Boundaries within CAM and between the CAM domain and the domain of the dominant system are not always sharp or fixed. O’Connor et al. , 1997) The second charge of the panel was to establish a list of parameters for obtaining thorough descriptions of CAM systems. The list was constructed on 14 categories first conceptualized by Hufford (1995, p. 54ff): 1. Lexicon. What are the specialized terms in the system? 2. Taxonomy. What classes of health and sickness does the system recognize and address? 3. Epistemology. How was the body of knowledge derived? 4. Theories. What are the key mechanisms understood to be? 5. Goals for Interventions. What are the primary goals of the system? 6. Outcome Measures. What constitutes a successful intervention? 7. Social Organization. Who uses and who practices the system? 8. Specific Activities. What do the practitioners do? What do they use? 9. Responsibilities. What are the responsibilities of the practitioners, patients, families, and community members? 10. Scope. How extensive are the system’s applications? 11. Analysis of Benefits and Barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? 12. Views of Suffering and Death. How does the system view suffering and death? 13. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System. What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide? How does this system interact with the dominant system? The 14th category regards research methods and it not appropriate for this essay, one which focuses on descriptions. Peruvian Curanderismo The OAM categories can be illustrated with an Andean ethnomedical system, namely Pachakuti (i. e. , â€Å"world reversal† or â€Å"transformation†) Mesa Curanderismo, a tradition deeply rooted in the Huachuma and Paqokuna traditions and blended with aspects of Paqokuna Curanderismo. They have been adapted to become accessible to the industrialized world by Oscar Miro-Quesada of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. I have discussed this system with two of its leading English-speaking practitioners, Oscar Miro-Quesada (2002) and his student Matthew Magee (2002). In addition, I have observed Magee perform two ritualistic Mesa ceremonies. Because of its complexity and sophistication, this system can be described in terms of the OAM categories (O’Connor et al. , 1997): 1. Lexicon. Specialized terms come from Spanish, Aymara (an Andean language), and two forms of assimilated Quechua language, the â€Å"rural† form (i. e. , Runasimi) and the â€Å"high† form (i. . , Khapaqsimi)—the latter spoken by royalty or people in positions of power. In describing the ethnomedical and social communitary function of Peruvian Curanderismo, however, it is important to note that several terms have changed over time. For example, the contemporary terms used to describe the shaman and the sorcerer are maestro and brujo, respectively. However, if one traces the lineage of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition, one would find the terms curandero and malero (post-Conquest), hampiq and layqa (Inca pre-Conquest), and kamasqa and sonqoyog (pre-Inca) as well. There are also variations between charismatic and non-charismatic healers and, most recently, between Pachakuti Mesa practitioners and neo-shamanic practitioners. 2. Taxonomy. The Pachakuti Mesa tradition recognizes and addresses a wide variety of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual classes of health and sickness (Magee, 2002). Within this system, there are several types of ailments, and Spanish words are used to describe them: enfermedad de dano (a sickness caused by human intention), enfermedad de Dios (a God-given sickness), contagio (contagious sickness), and encantos (sickness caused by enchantment). Examples of the most common, enfermedad de dano, include harmful intention directed toward the ears (por oreja), through the mouth (por boca), through the air (por aire), or by loss of one’s â€Å"etheric body† or soul (sombra). The latter is typically brought about by susto or espanto (i. e. , magical shock or fright). More extreme is shucaque, or fright by trauma. In addition, there are sicknesses caused by envy and the â€Å"evil eye† (por mal de ojo) and by an â€Å"evil wind† (mal aire). The ritual encounter between the patient and the practitioner can be viewed as a dialogue about dano in which the shaman (i. . , curandero or curandera) uses a persuasive rhetoric (in speech and in song) in conjunction with ritualized activities to transform the patient’s self-understanding, hence his or her well-being. Most physical ailments fall into the category, enfermedad de Dios. In many traditions, practitioners do not deal with these conditions, but Pac hakuti Mesa shamans are an exception. The visual symptoms of a God-given sickness are similar to the vista en virtud (â€Å"sight in virtue and power†) that practitioners manifest after ingesting the San Pedro cactus, a mind-altering substance. As a result these symptoms rarely show up in the campo medio, the â€Å"middle field† of the practitioner’s healing altar, when he or she is performing a diagnostic rastero (i. e. , divination or â€Å"tracking†). 3. Epistemology. When tracing the origins of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition back through its oral lineage within Peruvian shamanism, one must go back to the Sechin culture, as well as the later Chavin, Tiahuanacu, Paracas, Nasca, Moche, Lambayeque, Chimu, Wari, Inca (or Inka), Aymara, Runa (or Quechua), and Mestiso traditions. Although archeological discoveries in the 1980s suggest that Peru’s central highlands were inhabited from 8,000 BCE and the origins of Peru’s shamanic technology can be traced back at least to 2,000 BCE, many practitioners believe that Mesa-related healing practices were utilized far earlier. 4. Theories. When working with a Mesa, a practitioner’s healing altar, the key mechanisms are believed to be his or her ability to control and direct unseen forces and entities. This is accomplished through proper utilization of the â€Å"field of the magician† (campo ganadero) as well as the â€Å"field of the mystic† (campo justiciero). Mastery of these two skills allows the practitioner to surrender his or her personal will or agenda, becoming an open, transparent vessel for Spirit to flow through, unhindered. The mastery of these â€Å"fields† is symbolized on either side of the Mesa, while the practitioner, as Master Healer or maestro, resides in the middle (campo medio). The healer also works with a supernatural hierarchy through a process of co-creation with Spirit. This hierarchy is believed to be a unified, interdependent system that provides practitioners with limitless sources of guidance and power. These sources include the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), Huaringas (Sacred Highland Lagoons), Pachamama (Mother Earth), Mama Killa (Grandmother Moon), Inti Tayta (Father Sun), Auquis (Nature Spirits), Tirakuna (the â€Å"Watchers†Ã¢â‚¬ ), Mallquis (Tree Spirits), Machukuna (Ancestors), Machula Aulanchis (Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†), tutelary animal allies, the elements of nature (e. g. , unu, wayra, nina, allpa), and various Roman Catholic saints (e. . , San Cipriano of Antioch, Brother Martin de Porres). Working with these sources requires a delicate balance, not only through the practitioner’s negotiation of control and surrender, but through living a lifestyle that reflects this balance (ayni or â€Å"sacred reciprocity†). Training involves a culturally sanctioned â€Å"calling† into the tradition. When a maest ro passes on his or her knowledge or bequeaths one’s practice to an initiate, there is an initiatory phenomenon (karpays) and a â€Å"magical contract† (pacto magico). . Goals for Interventions. Healing is a spiritual phenomenon. Sickness is considered to have its origin in, and gain its meaning from, the Spirit world. The purpose of life itself is to be initiated into the visionary regions of Spirit and to maintain oneself in concert with all creation (Achterberg, 1985). Hence, the goal for intervention in Pachakuti Mesa Curanderismo is a successful florecimiento (â€Å"flowering of fortune† healing ritual) that is used to strengthen a person’s physical and spiritual systems. Strengthening a patient’s runa kurku k’anchay (â€Å"luminous body†), as opposed to suppressing the symptom, empowers the patient to remove the sickness-causing intrusion with his or her own innate healing capacities. Once the patient’s personal power has been augmented, there is often a need to go further. This is especially true if the problem is extreme, as in â€Å"soul loss,† â€Å"possession,† â€Å"enchantments,† and potent acts of dano (e. g. , curses, certain types of contagion). In these cases, there is often a need to intervene on behalf of a patient with specific techniques for removal in the form of extraction (chupa), or counteracting the attack through ritual battle (volteando, volteada, or botando in which the curse is thrown back to its sender). Successful interventions of this kind usually completely disperse the patient’s negative condition and symptoms, and generate sickness in the person who initiated the curse. Depending on the original severity of the curse, death of the sorcerer has been known to occur. 6. Outcome Measures. A successful intervention is gauged primarily by the quality of the florecimiento, which brings about the energetic restoration or supplementation of a person’s potentials. This â€Å"flowering† of dormant potentialities brings forth qualities in the person necessary to maintain a sustainable livelihood. 7. Social Organization. Depending on the level of shamanic mastery attained, practitioners will be assigned various civic units of geographical space in which to work, ranging from the ayllu (extended family or community), to the llaqta (village or town), and finally the suyu (region). A curandero (or curandera) performs shamanic functions in this system. They include working with sicknesses brought about by sorcery, imbalance, envy, etc. , providing insight into conditions of the harvest, resolving interpersonal conflicts, influencing the weather, finding lost items (as well as lost persons or souls), and attending to a variety of spiritual, mental, emotional, and physical conditions. These healing sessions are primarily conducted on Tuesdays and Fridays. The curandero (or curandera) also performs specific ceremonial services for the community, such as providing ritual feedings (offrendas, despachos, or haywarikuys) for Pachamama (Mother Earth), the Apukuna (Sacred Mountains), and various supernatural beings (such as the â€Å"Watchers,† Nature Spirits, Tree Spirits, the Ancestors, the Benevolent â€Å"Old Ones†). A despacho or haywarikuy is a ritual offering used to promote a reciprocal exchange of thanks between human communities and the natural world. In the Paqokuna tradition, the pampa misayoq (ritual specialist) may learn to create and perform several hundred different types of despacho or haywarikuy ceremonial rituals. The performances are quite diverse and comprise 24 basic elements (recados) in the form of plant, animal, mineral, and human made products. All of these elements are reverently arranged on a square sheet of paper and either burned or buried as a way to promote the lifestyle of ayna (sacred reciprocity). There are offerings for births, deaths, marriages, good luck, prosperity, longevity, and harvests, to name a few. It is also common for practitioners to use despachos to bless certain spaces, such as living quarters, work places, and sacred sites. There are various types of curanderos and curanderas, e. g. , the alto misayoq (herbalists), the pampa misayoq (ritual specialists), and the kuraq akulleq (literally, â€Å"master chewers of coca†). The latter is considered to have attained the highest level of mastery and rank within the shamanic hierarchy. Both males (curanderos) and females (curanderas) are employed as healing practitioners in this tradition. The services of a brujo (or sorcerer) can be purchased to adversely affect the health of a rival, or to assure success in business, love, and other aspects of personal gain. The person who has â€Å"hired† a brujo may reveal this fact to an ally, who will subsequently pass the news along a network that eventually leads to the intended target. Similarly, the curandero’s or curandera’s analysis of the source of a patient’s suffering is often a topic of subsequent conversation between social intimates of the patient; this is also true of the countermeasures (e. g. , the volteada or ritual in which sorcery is reversed) often used by the shaman. Potential patients for both the curandero and brujo include most of the members of the community, but when seeking medical assistance from the curandero, patients also commonly see both a curandero and an allopathic physician, often not openly discussing their visit to the former. This reluctance to reveal utilization of the indigenous healing system applies to any member of the social system, from the wealthy business executive to the poor farmer. Patients of curanderos and brujos include owners of businesses, political office holders, educators, military officers, and even a few medical professionals. These persons are willing to spend significant amounts of money and subject themselves to physically exhausting ritual treatments because they have shared with curanderos the belief that sorcery can be the cause of sickness. The majority of patients for both the curandero and brujo are women. This may be due to the inferior role of the female as a subordinate within the public transcript of male privileged society (e. g. , the values of machismo which support gender-based hierarchies, and the subsequent psychological and social conflicts that arise as a result). Through the sorcerer, women can gain access to powers that guarantee spousal fidelity (e. g. , â€Å"love magic†), thus eliminating the competition (e. g. , dano). Even the apprehension that a woman might pursue this alternative can act as an effective sanction. The curandero, on the other hand, provides women with the means to redress wrongs and to hold men accountable for their actions. 8. Specific Activities. a. Diagnosis: Diagnosis can be carried out through a variety of activities, for example, a rastreo (divining and tracking), coca leaf divination, reading the entrails of a guinea pig, or casting shells, etc. However, the source of diagnosis most commonly utilized in healing situations by Huachuma curanderos is the San Pedro cactus. The entheogenic San Pedro imbues the healer with vista en virtud (virtue, vision, and insight), which enables him or her to diagnose not only the illness, aliment, or disease of a patient, but often the source of said illness, aliment, or disease and specific ways to cure it. The curandero’s mesa (personal healing altar) also plays a vital role in the divinatory process of diagnosis, e. g. , by speaking to the curandero through the cuenta (the history, story, narrative, or â€Å"account†) of a specific piece or pieces. There are also practitioners who will â€Å"read† the energy of a person’s poq’po or wayrari (so-called â€Å"electromagnetic energy field†) to detect imbalances or deficiencies within that energy field and as a means for diagnosis. Ultimately, the above forms of diagnosis are highly effective and are commonly referred to by anthropologists because of the mystical flavor of shamanic healing arts. However, one must not overlook the curandero’s keen ability to observe with his or her senses (e. g. , simply observing how a person looks, smells, feels, interacts with the world). Curanderos will also often check a person’s tongue, nose, eyes, ears, glands, etc. , as a means for diagnosis. The combination of practical and mystical forms of diagnosis have availed the curandero with a high degree of accuracy regarding diagnosis. b. Treatment: The various modes of treatment employed by the curandero are as diverse as the conditions requiring treatment. However, nearly all treatments involve the use of a mesa (healing altar). A mesa is the sacred healing altar of a curandero, one that works in mediation with spiritual and cosmic forces for ritual healing. It is a microcosmic embodiment of a macrocosmic reality. This shamanic altar contains ritually empowered objects, which are aesthetically arranged on a sacred textile (unkhunas) to reflect the system of medicine employed by its carrier, e. g. , his or her lineage, cosmological background, animal allies, spirit guides, personal apukuna and huaringas (sacred mountains and lagoons). There are four kinds of objects primarily incorporated into a Pachakuti Mesa: khuyas (sacred stones), sepkas (power objects), estrellas (gifts from the spirits of the mountains), and enqas (totem fetishes). Among these, it is also common to find batas, palos, and espadas (staffs, sticks, and swords used for protection), florecimientos, (extractions, infusions, ritual battle), pututus (conch shells used to â€Å"call in† spiritual assistance and loosen blocks in an person’s body), seguros (good luck charms, protection pieces), rumikuna or khuyas (stones used for healing), condor feathers (used for directing energy and cleansing a person’s poq’po or energy field), huacos (objects and artifacts from Colonial and pre-Columbian times used to anchor specific energies into the medicine ground, often that of the ancestors), agua de Florida or agua de Kananga (colognes and perfumes, which are spayed through the mouth for cleansing and purification), rattles and whistles (to balance or bring in energy, commonly used when singing tarjos or medicine songs). It is also common to find candles, crosses, images of Roman Catholic saints, meteorites, ceremonially woven belts (chunpis), crystals, holy water, water from the melting ice of glaciers, San Pedro cactus, tobacco, coca leaves, singha (a combination of coca, tobacco, cane alcohol, and such perfumes as agua de florida, taboo, and siete poderes (which is imbibed through the nose), and incenses such as palo santo or copal. An herbal pharmacopoeia can occasionally be found as well. These objects (as well as the items specific to the individual mesa carrier) are arranged in a spatial configuration on the sacred textiles (unkhunas) and worked with to assist in the attainment of physical, emotional, spiritual, and mental integration and balance for the patient in the healing session. When a Pachakuti Mesa is used in ritual healing the distinction between the symbol and that which the symbol represents is dissolved. The objects arranged upon the mesa become the mountains, the rivers, the puma, or the empowered representation of the curandero’s own healing. Within this state of non-ordinary consciousness the line that delineates subject and object blurs, and the curandero is able to work with the mesa to bring about healing for the patient on an energetic level, which working at the source of the condition rather than through medicating the symptoms. Treatment also commonly involves incorporating the family members of the patient in the healing ceremony. This helps ensure that the patient will not only return to his or her community transformed, but he or she will return to a transformed community as well. Curanderos often find themselves acting simultaneously as apologists for, and avengers of, social injustices. 9. Responsibilities. a. Practitioner responsibilities: To attain a competent level of mastery through apprenticeship and experiential training, the aspiring practitioner must complete a series of rites of passage (karpays) governed by his or her teacher, elders and peers in the tradition, and the spiritual hierarchy. An example of the latter would be a demonstration of using coca leaves for diagnostic purposes. Once an apprentice is deemed qualified by his or her community, he or she may begin seeing patients on a small scale, but must build a solid reputation as a competent healer. This requires that the curandero consistently provide accurate diagnosis and effective treatment for the patients in need of healing. The curandero is also responsible to recommend alternative means for healing if he or she is not capable or does not specialize in the condition presented by the patient. In addition to being a qualified and capable healer, the curandero must also live a lifestyle of ayni, which reflects not the qualities of the tradition, but the living example of balance mirrored by nature and the living cosmos. This requires one to exist in uninterrupted communion with the spiritual hierarchy, to live as a perpetual student of life, and to continually deepen one’s relationship with the phenomenal world, with one’s internal world, and with the living universe around one. b. Patient responsibility: To be open and willing to participate in the healing being offered, as well as to be willing to implement the advice or prescription suggested by the curandero. The patient is also responsible to provide some form of reciprocal exchange for the healing service provided, either monetarily or through some form of barter or trade. c. Family responsibility: To be present for the healing ceremony if possible, and to provide support with the information gained from the healing session to ensure the patient is able to recover in an environment that supports this new, transformed paradigm. The family is also responsible for communicating this information to pertinent community members who can further reinforce the transformed living environment for the patient. The family is often responsible to help compensate the curandero, either through monetary means or through trade if the patient is unable to do so. d. Community responsibility: To be a supplemental presence of support for the patient and to reinforce the transformed living environment for the person in transition. 10. Scope. This type of Peruvian shamanism has been practiced over the millennium in remote, northern areas of Peru. This isolation has helped Pachakuti practitioners preserve their independence and their prerogatives. The apparent success of the Pachakuti system in its place of origin is an additional reason for its longevity. The scope of this healing system is comprehensive, as it is used for physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual problems. However, there are allopathic treatments and technologies that would bolster traditional medicine, and well-meaning curanderos and curanderas often endeavor to make referrals to a clinic or hospital (typically, at a distance) if that would help their patient. 11. Analysis of benefits and barriers. What are the risks and costs of the system? Due to the recent advances in allopathic medical technology, competition between biomedical organizations and indigenous systems is becoming more common. The boundaries that delineate these two systems, and the conditions they address, are often blurred. Poor people often turn to indigenous healers because biomedical treatments are too expensive. However, curanderos are not part of a recognized profession and therefore operate in legal and social marginality. Many curanderos experience harassment from local police, who use rarely enforced legal restrictions on non-licensed medical practitioners to extort protection payments. Church and civic officials have also been party to repressive measures against curanderos. Curanderos certainly recognize the tenuous position that they occupy in the Peruvian medical system. Some prefer to maintain a very low profile to avoid the notice of local officials, for example, by performing their ritual sessions in remote agricultural fields. Other curanderos bank on the support of well-connected patients to keep them out of trouble. 12. Views of suffering and death. This system holds that there is a basic continuity between life and death. When the physical body dies, life and death are not seen as separate, for life cannot exist without death. When the physical body dies it goes into the Earth and feeds it, giving life to the plants and trees. The plants feed the animals, who feed the Earth, ad infinitum, in a self-regulating interdependent relationship seen as the great web of life. All things are born from Pachamama (Mother Earth) and all things shall return to her. Views of the afterlife vary from practitioner to practitioner but most believe in life after the physical body dies. All in all, death is seen as a natural process, inseparable from life. Anthropologists have long noted that life’s transitions (i. e. , birth, death) are commonly marked by elaborate rituals, the purpose of which is to smooth the disruption to the social order that such status changes can cause. The body of the person undergoing the transition is often the target of symbolic manipulations: special decorations (e. g. , burial costumes) and purification (e. g. , cleansing). A particularly frequent symbolic message conveyed by these rituals is death and rebirth; the person is dying from the social status previously held and being born into a new identity. Indigenous rituals are reminiscent of hospital patients who put on the standardized garb required by the institution, as well as the strict fasting enforced before surgery, the cleansing processes requested of the patient as well as surgical staff, the process by which the patient’s vital signs and consciousness are taken to a death-like state, and the patient’s frequently cited post-surgery sense of being reborn. The fact that all these features have medical justifications and explanations does not diminish their potential symbolic impact. Much of the suffering experienced by Peruvians is attributed to acts of dano, or sorcery. This is especially potent in a society like that of Peru where personal relationships are critical to economic survival and where the powers of the sorcerer and the curandero are assumed to have empirically verifiable effects. Dano, as a threat or as an accepted diagnosis, can have serious social repercussions no matter how outsiders to the tradition might view the forces that the sorcerers claim to control. Peruvian society’s rigid social hierarchies make people increasingly dependent upon personal networks in order to survive. The resulting burden of economic self-interest loaded onto personal relationships has contributed to a social world in which mistrust inevitably accompanies interdependence. It should not be surprising, therefore, that social relations would be the assumed source of misfortune and suffering for rural Peruvians. This stands in contrast with traditional Andean attributions of sickness to natural forces and supernatural transgressions. 12. Comparison and Interaction with Dominant System. What does this system provide that the dominant system does not provide and how does this system interact with the dominant system? On the one hand, Miro-Quesada (2002) believes that global shamanism is an emerging phenomenon of the 21st century. The Pachakuti teachings are intended to empower all interested persons, allowing them to work with unseen forces in order to promote healing and balance through spiritual mediation. But on the other hand, the dominant role being played by allopathic biomedicine often rules out people’s interest and participation in an indigenous healing system (e. g. , Levi-Strauss, 1955). Conclusion On July 14, 2003, Matthew Magee performed a ritualistic ceremony on the top of Mount Tamalpais in Marin County, California, in the spirit of Kamasqa Curanderismo, one of the components of the Pachakuti Mesa tradition. This ceremony waves together several themes that expressed the participants’ reverence for the Earth as teacher and mother. Together, the group created a consecrated Earth offering (despacho) to foster a lifestyle of sacred reciprocity (ayni) and an awareness of life’s interdependence, calling upon participants to live harmoniously with oneself, with others, and with the planet as a whole. There are ecopsychologists who believe that healing the planet is basically a shamanic journey; if so, traditional medical systems can play a vital role in this endeavor. However, while herbal medicines, indigenous treatments, and shamanism are becoming faddish in the West, indigenous systems in their original contexts are becoming increasingly endangered. It is crucial to support indigenous cultures and learn what shamanism and related systems of healing have to offer the postmodern world before archival research in libraries replaces field research as the best available method for investigating these healing systems. Their longevity indicates that they have served many groups of eople quite well over the millennia. The question remains as to what they can offer a world where allopathic biomedicine is not only revered but also powerful, a world in which reality is constricted to measurable physical dimensions and alternative perspectives are dismissed as â€Å"folk psychology† (Kelly, Kelly, Crabtree, Gauld, Grosso, Gordon, 2007, p. 54). This discussion of Pachakuti and Navaho healing models has demonstrated the adaptability of many traditional healing systems to conditions in the contemporary world. The eclectic nature of the system bodes well not only for its survival but its compatibility with collegial practitioners of allopathic medicine. Finally, the ecological emphasis of the two systems provide inspiration for ecologists and their colleagues who agree with indigenous practitioners that the Earth is at risk, and that collaborative efforts are needed to redress the natural balance. References Achterberg, J. (1985). Imagery in healing: Shamanism and modern medicine. Boston: Shambhala. Cassell, E. J. (1979). The healer’s art. Middlesex, England: Penguin. Freeman, L. W. (2004). Mosby’s complementary alternative medicine: A research- based approach. St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York: Basic Books. Hufford, D. (1995). Cultural and social perspectives on alternative medicine: Background and assumptions. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 1(1), 53-61. Iljas, J. (2006). Introduction to psychology: Inner reality, outer reality in diversity. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/ Hunt. Kelly, E. F. , Kelly, E. W. , Crabtree, A. , Gauld, A. , Grosso, M. , Greyson, B. (2007). Irreducible mind: Toward a psychology for the 21st century. Plymouth, UK: Rowman Littlefield. Kleinman, A. (1995). Writing at the margin: Discourse between anthropology and medicine. Berkeley: University of California Press. Kluckhohn, C. , Leighton, D. (1962). The Navajo (rev. ed. ). Garden City, NJ: Natural History Library. Krippner, S. (2002). Spirituality and healing. In D. Moss, A. McGrady, T. C. Davis, I. Wickramasekera (Eds. ), Handbook of mind-body medicine for primary care (pp. 191-201). London: Sage. Krippner, S. , Welch, P. (1992). Spiritual dimensions of healing: From tribal shamanism to contemporary health care. New York: Irvington. Levi-Strauss, C. (1955). The structural study of myth. Journal of American Folklore, 78, 428-444. Magee, M. (2002). Peruvian shamanism: The Pachakuti mesa. Chelsford, MA: Middle Field. Mahler, H. (1977, November). The staff of Aesculapius. World Health, p. 3. Miro-Quesada, O. (2002). Foreword. In M. Magee, Peruvian shamanism: The Pachakuti mesa (pp. vii-viii). Chelsford, MA: Middle Field. O’Connor, B. B. (1995). Healing traditions: Alternative medicine and the health professions. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. O’Connor, B. B. , Calabrese, C. , Cardena, E. , Eisenberg, D. , Fincher, J. , Hufford, D. J. , Jonas, W. B. , Kaptchuck, T. , Martin, S. C. , Scott, A. W. , Zhang, X. (1997). Defining and describing complementary and alternative medicine. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 3 (2), 49-57. Sandner, D. (1979). Navajo symbols of healing. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. Siegler, M. , Osmond, H. (1974). Models of madness, models of medicine. New York: Macmillan. Torrey, E. F. (1986). Witchdoctors and psychiatrists. New York: Harper Row. How to cite Traditional Healing System, Essay examples

Case Review and Business Decision-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Questions: 1.Identify and Discuss the main Issues in the Case of 3M1 Company.2.Actions and Decision taken by 3M1 Company to mitigate these Issues. Answers: Introduction 3M1 Company is accompanied by complex set of activities in which various functions are performed to achieve certain goals and objectives. This report has reflected the key understanding on the particular case and how proper business decision could be taken to make the business effective. In this case study, two questions have been answered after evaluating the complete case of the business. This case study has put emphasis upon the innovation, creation and divergent thinking and hiring female employees in business process to reduce the hazardous complexity of the business. This case has shown the various problems and innovation styles which company has faced due to less effectiveness of the use of social media. Identify the issue in the case In this case study, problems faced by 3M1 company while implementing innovation has been discussed. Some of the problems in this case have been discussed as below. Change in business policies and frameworks This case has reflected the problems faced by a 3M1 Company while changing its business policies, structure and implementing innovative technologies in business. It is considered that if 3M1 Company changes its policies and its culture every time on the basis of demands and needs of the clients then it will not only destruct the value chain activities but also increase the overall cost of the production. Increased overall cost of the business The main objective of the 3M1 Company is to reduce the overall cost of the production and develop product differentiation strategy in its business. This level of analysis will help researchers to understand all the key problem of 3M1 Company while installing innovative and creative technologies in its business. Implementing innovation and creation in business This case is based on the use of innovation and creative business functioning in value chain activities of 3M1 Company. It has put emphasis upon how business could reduce the hazardous business functioning to create safe and effective working environment. However, money invested in its research and development department has not been showing the results as per the desired outcomes. Company has also faced technical errors and loss of the business due to non-effective business functioning. It will not only increase the overall cost of the product but also damage the brand image of company on domestic and international level. In addition to this, data process system adopted through the cyber computing enterprises resources planning in 3M1 Company will also be costly for the 3M1 Company. Gender discrimination in business process of 3M1 Company It is evaluated that 3M1 Company has followed gender equity polices and rules in its business functioning. However, more focus has been made on hiring experts in innovative process to increase the overall efficiency. With the newly adopted innovative technologies and new business structure, company has faced several hazardous problems in its business which put negative impact on the employees and their healths. Social media development This company has been running its business since last 1000 years and providing best quality of goods and services by maintaining effective employees oriented culture program. This company has invested more than $ 1 billion in research and development department to create core competency after adopting innovative and creative business. However, company has faced in problems in marketing its business and failed to adopt social media portals such as Facebook, Twitter and Google image section to promote its business. Post industrialism and service work service economy It is evaluated that Post industrialism focus on the era where services sectors organization generates more wealth than manufacturing sectors organization. 3M1 company has adopted advanced cyber computing system in its business to increase the overall productivity. In addition to this, company has also created new market by offering advanced services in market by adopting newly developed innovative and creative technologies in its business (Harris, 2006). Following Social determinism 3M1 has also followed the Social determinism theory which has shown that determine the individual behavior to customize productive and quality of the products. Company focuses on adopting innovative technologies and system in its business and increases its overall turnover by following two leading strategy such as cost leadership and product differentiation strategy. This Social determinism will increase the overall productivity and efficiency of business. Technology, organization and strategic choice It is evaluated that with the changes in business structure and increasing needs of the clients adopted technologies have shown the shortcoming of companys offering in market. It will not only result to loss of invested capital in its research and development department but also destruct the brand image of company. In addition to this, linkage and networking established by company in its business has also been changed by its board of directors by entering into strategic alliance with ICTs knowledge and organizations. (Anton, 2015). Gender and Technology Gender equity is the most required in the business success. However, gender equity policies and regulation has been followed by organization but penalties and zero tolerance policies need to be followed in business to increase the overall productivity of the business. Nonetheless, 3M1 has to change its focus on gender equality to hiring experts in innovative and technologies field. Company has stuck in the issues of establish harmonization between gender equality policies and hiring experts for the betterment of organization. End User Innovation These end users are the real clients for the organization. Company has faced issue of increased cost due to increased level of cost while implementing the new technologies. However, enabling the process in 3M1 Company is based on the developed innovation. Company while adopting new innovation has changed the complete set of structure and policies to guide innovation strategies and activities. However, due to the failure of the employees working in 3M1 Company with the advanced technologies, products of the company had to go through the break through stage. In addition to this, gateways and funnel which is used to extract the innovation and creative technologies in market has also facing various issues (Stake, 2013). Technology, organization and strategic choice Strategic choice of the organization is related to hiring right amount of leaders in business process. leaders working in 3M1 Company may also be the concern for the business failure. It is evaluated that all the employees in 3M1 Company are accustomed to act as per the directions and instructions of the leaders. If these leaders fail to instruct employees in determined approach then it may destruct the outcomes of the business. If company continues with this strategy then each and every failure of the strategic plan of business will increase the overall production cost and company would fail in achieving the cost leadership strategy in market. Knowledge learning innovation It is evaluated that learning and knowledge creating program is less effective. The main problem of company is related to acceptance of mistake and encouragement of risk in business. This Knowledge learning innovation program will not only increase the chances of business destruction but also put negative impact on the brand image of company. However, company should increase its internal control system and invest more money in its research and development department (Stake, 2013). Following strategic alliance and strategic choice This issue of the business is related to entering into strategic alliance with other organizations to develop effective and innovative technologies in its business. It is evaluated that company instead of paying consideration amount to other companies for creating strategic alliance should invest its capital in its research and development department. However, company needs to strong its hiring and hires experts employees in its research and development for the development of effective employees. Linkage and networking of 3M1 Company is also less effective which has increased its overall cost of the production cost. If this strategic alliance is managed in effective manner then it will increase the overall productivity and efficiency of business. (Casadesus?Masanell and Zhu, 2013). Feminism in business This increased policies and strict rules of the government have focused on increasing the feminism in business. These policies will completely put negative impacts on the hiring of experts employees, developing effective technologies in business and adopting effective managerial program in 3M1 Company. Therefore, after evaluating the whole case of this company, it could be inferred that company has faced various problems such as implementing innovation technologies, hurdles in entering into strategic alliance with other 3M1 Company and hiring females employees. Nonetheless, changing the business policies and structure of business is very crucial for the business. 2.There are various strategic and management level actions which could be undertaken by 3M1 Company to mitigate issues and problems faced by 3M1 Company. Change in the business policies If 3M1 Company wants to reduce the complex issues of the Feminism in business then it needs to implement strategic plans as per sex equality acts of the government then it could surely increase the overall productivity of the 3M1 Company. Company by using effective strategic tools could easily identify the problems and shortcoming in feminism in business. For instance, PESTLE analysis will help 3M1 Company to identify the possible threats and customized its products as per the demand and needs of the clients in market (Casadesus?Masanell and Zhu, 2013). Making business more decentralized to reduce the complexity of business It is evaluated that if decisions are taken by the employees and concerned department then it will surely increase decrease the problems and issues associated with the particular process. For instance, if adopted technologies are not adapted by employees in their process then management department should leave the decision to adopt those technologies on the employees of 3M1 Company. If contrast decision is taken by management department then it will increase the employees turnover of company. Social innovation Company should adopt proper standards promotional program for its business. For instance, company has focused on using Facebook and Google image section. However, company should focus on using cyber computing system in business (Stake, 2013). Customized business policies and structure of the business It is evaluated that if company is adopting new level of technologies and creative business functioning then it has to customize its business policies and structure of the business for the betterment of 3M1 Company. For instance, business process of 3M1 Company does not allow the parallel routes through their system so that innovations can come from close market interactions or from deep technology research in their labs or from various forms of collaboration, or from serendipitous discovery by their staff (Ganter and Hecker, 2014). Adopting the cyber computing enterprises resources planning by entering into strategic alliance with the ITC It is evaluated that if proper level of cyber computing enterprises resources planning is adopted by 3M1 Company by entering into strategic alliance with the ITC then it will support the newly developed technologies in 3M1 Company. This company has been facing several issues such as installation of the proper technologies and following proper valuing methods in business. It is considered that these cyber computing enterprises resources planning will increase the communication among the stakeholders. It will increase the overall productivity and efficiency of business (Boons, et al., 2013). Adopting proper leadership program It is evaluated that if company fails to adopt proper level of leadership in business. However, leadership program is not managed in effective manner then it will destruct the employees working program and reduce the overall productivity of 3M1 Company. For instance, autocratic leadership style should be followed by leaders when new changes are implemented in 3M1 Company (Casadesus?Masanell and Zhu, 2013). Building an innovative 3M1 Company It is evaluated that company follows the program which is learning from the mistakes. It is observed that company needs to hire experts employees and women in its research and development department to build the new technologies and innovative program in the business. As per the research, it is evaluated that women are more advanced to identity the innovative business process as compared to male employees. Existing business functioning of company is not that strong and it also follows rigid bureaucratic procedures to in its value chain activities which less promotes women employees. It is evaluated that company needs to re-engineer its business process to reduce the cumbersome process of business and increase the women employees numbers. In addition to this, strategic alliance will help company to launch its new innovative technologies and implement creative business functioning in 3M1 Company by hiring women employees (Holbeche, 2015). Hiring Women employees in business Company is focusing on hiring experience and women staff to promote the feminist in organization. However, with the increasing needs of the employees and implementing re-engineering process will require experiences women staff. Therefore, company should focus on hiring only experienced women staff in its business to reduce the complexity of value chain activities of 3M1 Company (Jorgenson, et al. 2016). Decrease the involvement of male clients and hire women employees in business It is evaluated that use of social media is increasing the output of the business. It is evaluated that if women employees are restricted from the developed innovative business process then research and development department of company could not increase the efficiency of the social media use. It will increase the outcome of the business and increase the overall efficiency of use of social media (Demil and Lecocq, 2015). Implementation of the changes in management of innovation Company should increase the capital investment in its research and development department and hiring experts from outside. This level of re-engineering process in 3M1 Company will help company to develop effective business process and implement proper working chain. However, changes in business process on consistent basis may not destruct the business but also increase the overall cost of the production process. Implications of Social Media on Role of Women It is evaluated that if 3M1 Company is brining changes in its process then employees may adapt with those changes and some of the employees may find that difficult due to fear of new complex working system. This will help women employees to increase their employability. It is evaluated that women employees are more active in using social media. It will increase the overall advertisement outcomes of the business. Therefore, it is required to understand that if company wants to increase the overall outcomes by using social media then it has to give proper training to women employees. It will not only help them to adapt with the new system but also increase their efficiency to work with the developed system (Harris, 2006). Conclusion After evaluating this case, it is evaluated that the main pillar of the 3M1 Company success is related to its business policies, implemented business strategies, efficiency of its employees and hiring women staffs and its marketing relation. If these things are managed in proper manner in value chain activities of 3M1 Company then it will not only help 3M1 Company to achieve the desired results but also increase the outcome of the business. Proper hiring of the female employees for the role of the social media will increase the effectiveness of the business (Rothaermel, 2015). References Anton, R., 2015. An Integrated Strategy Framework (ISF) for Combining Porter's 5-Forces, Diamond, PESTEL, and SWOT Analysis. Boons, F., Montalvo, C., Quist, J. and Wagner, M., 2013. Sustainable innovation, business models and economic performance: an overview.Journal of Cleaner Production,45, pp.1-8. Casadesus?Masanell, R. and Zhu, F., 2013. Business model innovation and competitive imitation: The case of sponsor?based business models.Strategic management journal,34(4), pp.464-482. Demil, B. and Lecocq, X., 2015. Crafting an innovative business model in an established company: The role of artifacts. InBusiness models and modelling(pp. 31-58). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Ganter, A. and Hecker, A., 2014. Configurational paths to 3M1 Commpanyal innovation: qualitative comparative analyses of antecedents and contingencies.Journal of Business Research,67(6), pp.1285-1292. Harris, M. (2006) F.W. Taylor and the legacies of systemization, Information, Communication and Society 9:1, pp 109-120. Holbeche, L., 2015.The Agile 3M1 Commpany: How to build an innovative, sustainable and resilient business. Kogan Page Publishers. Jorgenson, J., Shaw, W., Kilgore, K.E. and Jefferson, D.M., 2016. Reaping the benefits of an innovative pharmacy business model.Healthcare Financial Management,70(11), pp.72-79. Rothaermel, F.T., 2015.Strategic management. McGraw-Hill Education. Stake, R.E., 2013.Multiple case study analysis. Guilford Press.

Aristotelian Tragedy Macbeth free essay sample

Aristotelian Tragedy: Macbeth Aristotle is known widely for developing his ideas on tragedy. He recorded these ideas in his Poetics in which he comments on the plot, purpose, and effect that a true tragedy must have. The structure of these tragedies has been an example for many writers including Shakespeare himself. Many of Shakespeare’s plays follow Aristotelian ideas of tragedy, for instance Macbeth does a decent job in shadowing Aristotle’s model. Aristotle describes one of the most important elements of a tragedy to be a tragic hero. The tragic hero however must present certain qualities such as nobility and virtue. In the play Macbeth, Macbeth is a perfect example of a tragic hero. Macbeth begins the play coming home from battle, he is said to have fought with great courage and King Duncan himself awards him the title of the thane of Cawdor in reward for his bravery. The qualities make Macbeth a tragic hero as he possesses not only a noble title, but also the assets of a great warrior and hero. We will write a custom essay sample on Aristotelian Tragedy Macbeth or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, Aristotle emphasizes that if the tragic hero was as perfect as he seems than the audience would not be able to identify with him and this would not be considered a tragedy. Macbeth shows us his humanity very early in the play when he learns that Malcolm, Duncan’s son, will be the heir to the throne of Scotland. In response, Macbeth acknowledges that he himself should be awarded the crown and will not rest until royalty is his. Macbeth is an ambitious character, which is a quality that many humans can identify with. This ambitiousness is known as Macbeth’s tragic flaw. This leads to Aristotle’s next component of a tragedy, the tragic flaw. The hero’s tragic flaw must lead to the downfall of the character; his demise can be caused by no one other than himself. Macbeth’s ambitious personality leads him to become caught up in attaining power for himself. Macbeth’s ruthless behavior causes him to commit murder to Duncan in order to gain kingship. Even after his wish comes true, he continues to sacrifice the lives of others, including his close friend Banquo, to assure that he never loses his throne. However, Macbeth does not go unpunished as he suffers countless dreams and illusions that drive him to insanity. The loss of his wife also brings Macbeth to his final denouement. In the end, Macbeth is killed by Macduff; because of his arrogance he believed he was invincible even after being told his fate. Macbeth reaches his end through the same way he lived his life, through murder and deception. Many argue over the fairness of Macbeth’s life, but the goal of a tragedy in Aristotle’s view point is to strike fear and pity in the audience through harsh punishment upon the hero in extreme ways. Finally, Aristotle claims that in order for a tragedy to be effective, the fear and pity must be released from the audience through catharsis. First the tragic hero must gain some knowledge from his tragic life. Macbeth shows this self-realization in his ‘yellow leaf’ soliloquy when he expresses remorse for his actions. Also, in the end he knows he must fight until the end whether his fate is death. At this point the audience is cleansed of the emotions of the plot and the tragedy is finished. Macbeth is a primary example of a typical Aristotelian tragedy. It follows the structure necessary from the tragic hero, to his downfall and ultimately to the catharsis necessary for an original Greek drama. The aspects of this play are a perfect example of the tragedies of that era.

Gray Wolf essays

Gray Wolf essays The wolf is the largest member of the dog family. It is a very powerful animal and has great endurance. It is usually grayish or brownish, however in Arctic regions it is white, and in parts of North America it is black. Color and size of the wolf vary greatly in the different regions of its range. The wolf is about four and a half feet long with a twelve to eighteen inch bushy tail. It weighs from anywhere 40 to 170 pounds. They have strong jaws with sharp teeth, including their long canine teeth that can tear flesh. They have excellent eyesight, sharp hearing, and a very keen sense of smell. Wolves howl as a signal to other wolves, telling of the beginning and ending of a hunt, of a wolf separated from its pack, as a warning to other wolf packs, and sometimes just for fun. The Gray Wolf, also known as the Timber Wolf, tends to live in packs of 5 to 15 individuals based around a dominant pair of wolves. The leader of the pack is called the Alpha. Wolves hunts in their packs, the preferred prey being large herbivores such as elk, deer, bison, and mountain sheep, but it will also take smaller game, most commonly beaver and domestic animals. When food is scarce, they will eat smaller things such as mice. Nearly extinct, the gray wolf is now only found in Alaska, Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Usually only one female per pack reproduces. Mating usually occurs once a year in January or February, with gestation lasting about two months, after which four to seven cubs are born. The den is usually in a hole in the ground or a crevice in some rocks, and is often used year after year. Within 3 to 5 months the young pups are able to travel with the pack. During the time when the alpha female has her pups in the den, the pack stays in one place. Other than that, they are always on the move. Gray wolves may live up to thirteen years in the wild, although the average life span is five to six years. Some wolves that are held in captivity...

Does the evidence support the claim that the media 'lost' the Vietnam Essay

Does the evidence support the claim that the media 'lost' the Vietnam war for America How has this belief affected way that the - Essay Example Affective media can simultaneously boost the morale of nation as well as of the armed forces during a war and after the war also. Media should display patriotic spirit to project the image of its own country, as it is really essential for overall representation of the state. Vietnam War is also an example from history where American media could not handle the war to project the gains of the forces. One that media did not print the US military effort and sacrifices of the army and on other end, post-war scenario was full of critic, which had very demoralizing affects on troops and also on nation as a whole. Therefore, after passing about 35 years, still there is an ongoing debate on the role of American news media on the outcome of the conflict. Severe objection of the media on the issue of policy failure in war also compelled the decision makers to alter the course of action, ultimately led to confusion and chaos. Media lost the war for America because it was media, which projected t he war in a negative sense. The government was unable to control the media and the media especially the television highlighted such images of American government that deteriorated the image of American army among the masses and the world as a whole. That showed that censorship policies for media should be there in order to safeguard the reputation of a country. Media’s role in Vietnam War was quite predictable as it is said that media’s engagement in disabling America to win the war is prominent. Action of media and certain causes of failure in campaign in the subsequent conflicts shall be elaborated here. This paper analyzes the issue of media involvement in the Vietnam War along with its affects on military efforts in Vietnam. This paper also draws attention to the fact that American media lost the Vietnam War for America. Media and Preliminary Phase of the Conflict It was obvious from the outset that US was assisting Vietnam people in fighting against the communist aggression. Saigon government was in power to take care of American interests. Besides continuous information provided by US officials on activities of the forces in Vietnam, American diplomats wanted Vietnamese press guidance in all matters (Landers 2004). On the outset of hostilities, lack of harmony was found in American media and government. American public and congress were a bit hesitant to raise voice in support of the war waged by US. This also posed a problem in releasing funds for the campaign. Until 1962, lack of interest observed was in the role of media to support war. Non-availability of independent information gathering system and absence of means for real time battlefield picture led to mismanagement. Editorializing for moulding public opinion was almost absent in newspapers. Policies of Kennedy could not seek success due to objective journalism of American media. According to Wyatt (1993), â€Å"The Kennedy administration also took steps of its own to shut the pres s away from this story† (91). However, he was not successful in his efforts because of uncontrollable media and lacking governmental policies. At the same time, American media started portraying two different pictures of Vietnam War. One, way of conduct of war by south Vietnamese was highly being criticized. Other was the optimistic approach of American advisers